Critical Analysis of the Strategic human resource management in India The WritePass Journal

Critical Analysis of the Strategic human resource management in India Abstract Critical Analysis of the Strategic human resource management in India AbstractIntroductionSHRM literature: DevelopmentsBackground: Choice of countryProcedure for review of articlesResearch questionsScope of the reviewIdentification of articlesCharacteristics of the reviewed studiesConclusionReferencesRelated Abstract The last two decades have witnessed many developments in the research and practice of managing human resources. While the debate began with a consideration of the changing role of HRM, more recently there has been increased interest in conceptualizing and testing the links between business strategy and performance. In India, research in the area of HRM gained recognition with the ushering in of the new economic era of liberalisation during the early 1990s. The primary objective of this article is to provide a synthesis of the strategic human resource management (SHRM) literature as it relates to India. Specifically, this review will consider the dominant theoretical perspectives adopted by scholars; ways in which HRM and performance are defined and operationalised; the approach taken to research design along with noting the control and contingency variables used. The review also draws out the potential contributions of the existing studies to solving the ‘black box’ prob lem. Finally, the article also presents the implications for future research on SHRM in India. Keywords: India, Strategic human resource management, HRM, firm performance Introduction Empirical research in the field of SHRM has proliferated significantly since the seminal work of Huselid in 1995. Many recent studies have discussed SHRM in the Asia-Pacific context (Audea, Teo, and Crawford 2005; Bae et al. 2003; Benson and Rowley 2003; Wan, Kok, and Ong 2002). Furthermore, the growth of India as an emerging market prompted institutions such as the World Bank to project the country as the world’s fourth largest economy by 2020 (Budhwar and Varma 2010). This increasing focus on India makes it an interesting setting for this study. The review aims to provide a synthesis of literature in the area of HRM and performance linkages in India. The study reviewed articles between 2003 (first empirical article: Singh 2003) and 2010 in academic journals, focusing on the HRM and performance debate. Specifically, this review will consider the dominant theoretical perspectives adopted by scholars; ways in which HRM and performance are defined and operationalised; the approa ch taken to research design along with noting the control and contingency variables used.   Finally, the review also examines the potential contributions of the reviewed articles to solving the ‘black box’ problem. This article is organised as follows. The first section reviews the extant literature on SHRM.   The next section discusses the need for a review of SHRM in India. The third section outlines the research methodology used in this paper. The final sections discuss the results and present the main conclusions and implications of this study. SHRM literature: Developments Lengnick-Hall et al. (2009) identified seven themes across time in the SHRM literature: (1) explaining contingency perspectives and fit, (2) shifting from a focus on managing people to creating strategic contributions, (3) elaborating HR system components and structure, (4) expanding the scope of SHRM, (5) achieving HR implementation and execution, (6) measuring outcomes of SHRM, and (7) evaluating methodological issues. Each of these themes played a significant role in the evolution of the field. Empirical research has suggested a relation between HRM practices (whether as individual practices or as a bundle) and organizational performance (Paauwe 2009). Wright and Boswell (2002) proposed a typology of HRM research based on two dimensions: level of analysis (individual/ organizational) and number of practices (single/ multiple). Many articles published after Huselid (1995) have not only analysed the effects on performance at an individual practice level like recruitment and selection (e.g. Koch and McGrath 1996), performance related pay (e.g. Dowling and Richardson 1997; Lazear 1996; McNabb and Whitfield 1997), training and development (e.g. Kalleberg and Moody 1994), and internal career possibilities (e.g. Verburg 1998), but also at multiple practice level, that is, bundles or combinations of HR practices (e.g. Arthur 1994; Gould-Williams 2003, 2007; Guest, Conway, Dewe 2004; Subramony 2009). At the multiple practice level, it is possible to analyse HR practices as a system, which has been referred as a high performance work system (e.g. Huselid 1995) or as a HR practice configuration (e.g. Delery and Doty 1996; Delery 1998). Delery (1998) suggests four types of possible relationships as: a) additive (where each HR practice has its own, unique effect on performance outcomes); b) interactive (the effect of each practice depends on the up-take of other practices within the bundle); c) positively synergistic (some HR practices mutually complement each other); and d) negatively synergistic (an inappropriate combination of HR practices that leads to more negative consequences than the mere absence of the practice).   Ã‚  More recently, Subramony (2009) categorized the HRM bundles as a) empowerment- enhancing (those HR practices that boost employee autonomy and responsibility levels); b) motivation-enhancing (bundles that provide employees with adequate levels of direction an d inducements); and c) skill-enhancing (bundles that augment the knowledge and skill levels of the workforce). It is now generally accepted that human resource management bundles can favourably affect the performance of business firms. The treatment of HR practices as a bundle is more effective than as an individual practice; when considering its impact on performance (MacDuffie 1995; Ichniowski 1997; Guest 2004). Though empirical research suggests that there is an association between HRM and performance, there is little understanding of the mechanisms through which HRM practices influence effectiveness (Delery 1998, 289). This largely unexplained facet of the HRM-performance relationship has been labelled the â€Å"black box† (Boselie et al. 2005). The discussion on the black box problem was triggered by Guest (1997) when he stated the need for more theory driven research in the area of HRM, performance and the linkages between the two concepts. Legge (2001, 30) reiterated the ‘need to open up the ‘black box’ of the process that links HRM and organizational performance’. Background: Choice of country India has been chosen as the research context for the following key reasons. India is one of the BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India and China) countries. Indian economy grew by 7.4 percent over the fiscal year 2009-10 (FICCI 2010). The sustained performance has been guided by robust growth in both service and manufacturing sector. The Indian economy adopted a structural adjustment programme at the beginning of 1991. The structural adjustment programme or liberalization initiated the process of the opening up of an otherwise closed economy of India (Som 2008). Thereby, an increasing need to understand HRM practices in India since the 1990s emerged since liberalisation of economic policies took place (Budhwar and Sparrow 1997). The operation of large number of MNCs in India has fuelled the need for the top managers of these organizations to learn about the nature of HR systems appropriate for the Indian context. HRM in India has rapidly evolved into a specialized function in organisations (Budhwar et al. 2009; Budhwar and Varma 2010), especially in the last two decades. Indian national context is marked by regional, sectoral, socio-cultural, institutional, and economic-political variations. Thus, the nature of the HR function varies from traditional personnel administration to strategic HRM/HRD. Numerous studies have explored the impact of HRM practices on firm performance in western economies like US and UK (e.g. Huselid 1995; Becker and Grehart 1996; Ichniowski 1997; Becker and Huselid 1998; Wood 1999), whereas there is a dearth of empirical research in non-westernised context, specifically India. Given, these factors, we would argue that the contextual focus of this review is justified. This study aims to review the body of literature from a theoretical and methodological perspective. Formalized personnel functions have been existent in Indian organizations since 1920s in India (Budhwar and Sparrow 1997; Rao 1999; Budhwar 2001). The personnel function then was primarily driven by the concern for labour welfare in factories. The personnel function started expanding beyond the welfare aspect into the three areas- labour welfare, industrial relations, and personnel administration in the 1960s. In the 1970s, the focus of personnel function shifted toward greater organizational ‘efficiency’. By the 1980s, terms such as HRM and HRD gained importance (Rao 1999). The 1990s saw a rapid change in the HRM function due to ushering in of liberalisation (Som 2007, 2008, 2010; Budhwar and Varma, 2010). Budhwar and Varma (2010) analysed the HRM literature in the Indian context and revealed that research has been pursued on a very broad variety of subjects. These   include (1) the evolution of the personnel function in India, (2) the role of unions and industrial relations in the new economic environment, (3) factors determining HRM, (4) HRM and firm performance (e.g. Singh 2003; Chand 2010), (5) HRM in MNCs operating in India (Budhwar and Bhatnagar 2009; Bjorkman and Budhwar 2007), (6) strategic integration and devolvement of HRM (e.g. Budhwar and Sparrow 1997); (7) organizational learning capability (e.g. Bhatnagar 2007), (8) employee relations, (9) turnover issues (e.g., Budhwar et al. 2009; SamGnanakkan 2010; Krishnan and Singh 2010), (10) comparative HR in public and private sector organizations (e.g. Budhwar and Boyne 2004), (11) emerging patterns of HRM in the business outsourcing sector (e.g. Budhwar et al. 2006), (12) the applicability of Western HR models in India, (13) H RD and training, and (14) comparative HR between India and other countries (e.g., Lawler et al. 1995; Budhwar and Khatri 2001; Budhwar and Sparrow 2002; Varma, Pichler, and Srinivas 2005; Woldu, Budhwar, and Parkes 2006). While there is a significant increase in volume of empirical research in India, there is no previous study that has reviewed SHRM in India. Thus for the purposes of the current study, the review will expand upon one major sub-theme- HRM and firm performance. The next section presents the procedure adopted for this review. Procedure for review of articles Research questions To accomplish the study objectives, the following research questions were posed. How have HRM practices been operationalised? How has the concept of performance been operationalised? What has been the dominant theoretical perspective that has been adopted? What were the sample characteristics of the research study (e.g. individuals, workplaces, industries or sectors etc.)? Who are the respondents (e.g. Single rater vs multiple raters per unit of analysis or Single vs multiple actors? What data collection methods have been used (e.g. case study, survey, interviews, large scale secondary data etc.)? Does the study deal with how HR practices linkages with performance (Black Box problem)? What are some of the areas future research should focus on? The following sub sections discuss the scope of review and identification of articles. Scope of the review There are four important criteria used in selecting articles for review. First, the articles were based on empirical research. Thus, conceptual papers were left out from the review. Second, the articles analysed data from workplaces in India. Third, articles used HRM practices and firm performance as variables. Fourth, articles had to be published in English. Also, the review excludes research published in books, conference proceedings and unpublished dissertations. Identification of articles There are 20empirical articles in total which study the impact of HRM practices in India. The literature search was conducted using the following databases- ABI/ Inform, Academic Search Premier, Emerald Fulltext, EBSCO. The search was based on three key descriptors ‘human resource management practices’, ‘firm performance’ and ‘India’. The full text was reviewed in order to eliminate those articles that were not actually related to HRM practices and firm performance. Empirical studies with specific focus on India and Asia have been presented in special issues of international journals like Journal of World Business (39(4), 2004), Employee Relations (29 (6), 2007), Human Resource Management (47 (1), 2008; 49 (3), 2010). Thus, an exclusive search was conducted in these issues. A total of 20 articles from 14 journals met the selecting criteria. A list of journals contributing these articles is given in Table 1.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Insert Table 1 here Characteristics of the reviewed studies Table 2 summarises the empirical studies reviewed in the study. Studies in Table 2 differ in sample size and demographic characteristics, industry context, operationalisation of HRM and performance, data collection and analytical method, directions for future research. Each of these aspects is discussed in the subsequent sections. Drawing on an extensive body of SHRM literature, we isolate potential research areas for investigation in India.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Insert Table 2 here Operationalisation of HRM One of the significant conceptual issues involves understanding how the central construct in this literature, the human resource system, affects firm performance outcomes. Many researchers (Guest 1997, 2001; Boselie et al. 2005, Paauwe 2009) have shared the concern of lack of theory in conceptualisation of HRM, performance and its subsequent link. Hesketh and Fleetwood (2006) contend even if there was sufficient conclusive evidence for statistical association between HRM practices and organizational performance, it is not enough to explain the association. Another significant issue that has been raised in SHRM literature is the distinction between HR policies and practices (Purcell et al. 2003). The policies refer to the stated firm’s intentions whereas the practices are established on observable, actual activities operationalised in the firm (Wright and Boswell 2002; Wright and Nishii 2004). Paauwe and Boselie (2005) state that the majority of previous studies focus on intended HR practices rather than the ‘actual’ HR practices or the employees’ perception of them.   Also, Purcell and Hutchinson (2007) discuss the role of front line managers (FLMs) in ascertaining the level of employee commitment. They argue that the outcome impact on employee attitudes of HRM policies would be more positive if the FLM leadership behaviour is also perceived as positive. Thus, it is argued that research would be more appropriate if it considers multi-actor respondents e.g worker, FLM and employer perceptions. An important finding is that the reviewed studies have used various measures of HR practices. This is consistent with the empirical literature in the West where there is no definite operationalisation of HRM (Paauwe 2009). Another important finding is some studies, such as Paul and Anantharaman (2003) built an industry-specific instrument to measure HR practices. Ketkar and Sett (2010) have extended Wright and Snell’s conceptualisation of HR flexibility. All other reviewed studies have adopted measures from either existing literature on high involvement HRM (e.g. Bjorkman and Budhwar 2007, SamGnanakkan 2010), innovation, high commitment or progressive HR practices (e.g. Som 2008; Cooke and Saini 2010), bundles of practices (Guchait and Cho 2010), or have used existing practices in organisations surveyed to operationalise HR practices (e.g. Chand and Katou 2007). Measure(s) of performance Guest (1999) argues that there is no general theory about performance and its measurement, which can be referred to as the ‘criterion problem’. Dyer and Reeves (1995) suggested that the HR practices work at four levels sequentially- HR (employee), organisational, financial and market. The performance outcomes can be measured as financial, organizational and HR-related outcomes (Boselie et al. 2005). However, as reported by them, the majority of researchers, US commentators in specific, have taken financial outcomes such as profit and productivity. The empirical studies by Ramsay et al. (2000) and Godard (2001) have strongly criticised the use of financial outcomes alone and led to a renewed attention to a pluralist perspective. Paauwe (2004) builds on this pluralist perspective, stressing HRM’s duality in its focus on added value and economic rationality versus moral values and relational rationality. Four studies (Singh 2003; Som 2008; Mulla and Premarajan 2008; Ketkar and Sett 2010) have used the financial measures of performance. The majority of studies have used organisational measures of performance (e.g. Chand and Katou 2007; Cooke and Saini 2010; Guchait and Cho 2010). Only two studies (Paul and Anantharaman 2003; Chand 2010) have adopted multiple performance measures financial and organisational. The remaining studies used HR-related outcomes like organisational commitment (Paul and Anantharaman 2003, 2004; Shahnawaz and Juyal 2006; Maheshwari, Bhat, and Saha 2008; Guchait and Cho 2010; SamGnanakkan 2010), intentions to leave (Guchait and Cho 2010; SamGnanakkan 2010) and employee performance (Ketkar and Sett 2010). There is limited research on HR-related or proximal outcomes which are treated as intervening variables between HR practices and organisational performance (Kehoe and Wright, forthcoming). This suggests that majority of the research in India is based on unitarist perspective. Another limitation of the reviewed studies is that none have studied the potential impact of HRM practices on negative employee outcomes such as dissatisfaction, stress, burnout and fatigue (Guest 1999; Purcell 1999). Sample size The HRM and performance studies present two unique sets of issues owing to sample size. While large sample sizes are difficult to obtain, given the unit or firm level of analysis, the more related challenge is that practically important relationships may be missed because of inadequate statistical power (Gerhart 2007).   A commonly used approach to determining the needed sample size for a latent variable model is based on the number of parameters estimated (Williams and O’Boyle Jr. 2008). A study with more parameters suggests a need for a larger sample size. Thus, sample size plays an important role in a research study. It is important to classify studies on the basis of primary levels of analysis (Boselie et al. 2005). The sample size used in the reviewed studies ranged from a low of 54 employees (Cooke and Saini 2010) to a high of 4,811 employees (Stumph, Doh, and Tymon 2010). The majority of studies reported sample size of over 100. It is suggested that when testing sophisticated models, large number of samples should be used (Hulland, Chow, and Lam 1996; MacCallum, Browne, and Sugawara 1996). The units of analysis were either a single organisation or multiple organisations. The sample in multiple organisation study ranged from 2 (Shahnawaz and Juyal 2006) to 439 organisations (Chand 2010). Respondents A methodological issue that continues to be debated concerns who should provide information about HRM (Guest 2011). There has been an ongoing call for using data collected from multiple informants about the presence of practices (Gerhart et al. 2000). Marchington and Zagelmeyer (2005) suggest that most of the high commitment studies have relied on management respondents to estimate the impact of HR practices on performance. It has been suggested that, particularly in the context of large organisations, senior HR managers are not always reliable informants and that it is more sensible to seek information from those experiencing the practices, namely workers. Paauwe (2009) makes a plea for a more contextual approach to HRM. He also suggests that future research should explore HRM- Performance link in light of broader multiple stakeholders like employees, government, trade unions, consumer organizations, etc (Paauwe and Boselie 2005). Also, research should endeavour to adopt a broader v iew of performance, taking into consideration employee concerns and wellbeing (Guest 2004). The majority of the reviewed studies have reported data from a single respondent, mainly focusing on senior management (Singh 2003; Agarwala 2003). While acknowledging the possible rater bias, such studies suggest that future studies could use a multi-rater approach, specially collecting data from heads of other functions. Ketkar and Sett (2010) proposed that their choice of single respondent senior managers from departments other than HR is consistent with the proposition of Batt (2002).   Batt (2002) argued that selection of non-HR managers as respondents could improve the reliability of measurements as these managers are expected to be more objective about the HR systems. Only three studies have used multiple respondents.   These include Sharma (2008) and Chand (2010), who have drawn samples from employees and customers, and Som (2008) who used samples drawn from senior executives MD, Director, VP, GM and HR personnel. Industry context Datta, Guthrie, and Wright (2005) suggest that industry characteristics may have wide implications for HRM. While there have been an increasing number of studies that discuss the impact of HRM practices on performance, research on the contextual factors that moderate the efficacy of these practices has been largely ignored. The findings of studies conducted in specific industry contexts are not necessarily generalisable to other industries. Seven studies (Singh 2003; Agarwala 2003; Khandekar and Sharma 2005; Bjorkman and Budhwar 2007; Som 2008; Stumph et al. 2010; Cooke and Saini 2010) draw on samples from multiple industries. Few studies have drawn samples from software industry (Paul and Anantharaman 2003, 2004), hotel industry (Chand and Katou 2007; Chand 2010), banking (Sharma 2008), and the information and communication technology industry (SamGnanakkan 2010). Theoretical basis Boselie, Dietz, and Boon (2005) identify three commonly used theories for defining the HRM and performance relationship, namely, contingency theory, resource based view (RBV) and Abilities, Motivation and Opportunities (AMO) framework. Contingency theory argues that HRM responds accurately and effectively to the organisation’s environment and complements other organisational systems (e.g. Arthur 1994; Huselid 1995; MacDuffie 1995; Delaney and Huselid 1996; Delery and Doty 1996; Wright et al. 2001). RBV advocates that HRM delivers ‘added value’ through the strategic development of the organisation’s rare, inimitable and non-substitutable internal resources, embodied in its staff (e.g. Boxall and Steeneveld 1999; Guthrie 2001; Batt 2002). RBV has become the dominant theoretical paradigm in most recent SHRM literature (Lengnick-Hall et al. 2009). AMO model argues that organisational interests are best served by an HR system that attends to employees’ interests, namely their skill requirements, motivations and the quality of their job (Appelbaum et al. 2000; Bailey, Berg, and Sandy 2001). It is interesting to note that these three approaches represent different traditions in HRM research. Contingency theory is based on organizational institutional theory. RBV can be traced back to concepts in Organizational economics, whereas the AMO framework has its theoretical underpinnings in industrial/ organizational psychology. Five studies (Bjorkman and Budhwar 2007; Som 2008; Cooke and Saini 2010; Guchait and Cho 2010; Ketkar and Sett 2010) have explicitly specified the theoretical basis for review. Bjorkman and Budhwar (2007) draw on the resource based view (RBV) of strategic human resource management literature. Som (2008) found empirical evidence based on a universalistic or a best practices perspective. Cooke and Saini (2010) integrate three existing theories- RBV, ‘new’ institutional theory and organisational politics perspective. Guchait and Cho (2010) support a configurational or bundles approach to HRM.   Ketkar and Sett (2010) extends the existing conceptualisation of HR flexibility used by Wright and Snell (1998). All the other articles reviewed did not contain a clear reference to the conceptual perspective adopted in the study. Data collection method(s) Hesketh and Fleetwood (2006) argue that most of the researchers show an empirical association between HRM practices and organizational performance. The authors argue that the existence or non-existence of empirical association does not necessarily imply causal connection between them. Also, Wright et al. (2005) identified that most empirical studies studying HRM and performance are post-predictive in nature. This means HRM practices were measured after the performance period. A more appropriate approach would involve assessing HRM practices at one point of time and assessing performance at some future point of time (Huselid 1995; Youndt et al. 1996; Paauwe 2009). The more recent studies (Guest, Conway, and Sheenan 2003; Wright et al. 2005) control for both past and subsequent performance. Seventeen studies used the cross-sectional quantitative survey method. Although some studies have suggested use of longitudinal surveys, none of them have applied the method in their own study. The cross-sectional nature of the reviewed studies does not allow for any conclusions regarding causal relationships. Two studies (Agarwala 2003; Bjorkman and Budhwar 2007) have used a mixed methodology using quantitative survey and interviews. The study by Cooke and Saini (2010) can be classified as a purely qualitative study. Only one study (Mulla and Premarajan 2008) was based on secondary data. The study drew on data from Chairpersons’ speech and directors’ reports of 100 companies listed by the Center for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE) database, Prowess. It can be concluded that survey method is the dominant method for researching the HRM and performance literature in India.   Although, a social survey offers a great deal of insight into the phenomenon of interest, it is unable to answer some basic questions. For instance, even if a presented theory allows the understanding of reality, the question remains why this reality should be as it is according to this theory (Mingers, 2004; Stavenga, 2006). Thus, future research could focus on adopting a qualitative or a mixed method f or collecting data. Directions for future research Several suggestions for future research have been made in the reviewed studies. The key issues that have been put forth are the black box problem (Agarwala 2003; Chand and Katou 2007; Bjorkman and Budhwar 2007; Som 2008; SamGnanakkan 2010); the need for longitudinal studies (Singh 2003; Paul and Anantharaman 2004; Som 2008; Chand 2010; Ketkar and Sett 2010); the need to study additional variables (Singh 2003; Paul and Anantharaman 2004; Bjorkman and Budhwar 2007); and the use of multiple respondents (Singh 2003; Cooke and Saini 2010; Ketkar and Sett 2010; SamGnanakkan 2010). Some studies suggest that future studies could be cross-national (Singh 2003; Chand 2010; Cooke and Saini 2010; Guchait and Cho 2010) and could use different industry settings (Paul and Anantharaman 2003; Sharma 2008; Cooke and Saini 2010). In this article, we will focus on a key issue that emerges from the existing studies- the black box problem. Boselie et al. (2005) has noted that despite the increasing volume of research on HRM and performance, there has been little focus on the ‘how’ aspect of the linkages.   Purcell and Hutchinson (2007, 3) note the critical link in the black box problem is ‘how HR practices influence employee attitudes and improve worker performance’. This involves a call for making the research more worker-centric (Guest 2011). The workers’ perceptions and behaviour has become increasingly vital in understanding the relationship between HRM and performance. A number of studies have discussed how the HR practices influence financial performance (Huselid 1995; Wright and Snell 1998; Ahmad and Schroeder 2003). An increasing number of human resource scholars suggest it is important to explore the ‘black box’ containing the links between HRM practices and distant organizational performance measures such as proï ¬ tability or stock value (Becker and Gerhart 1996; Tremblay et al. 2010; Krishnan and Singh 2011). Researchers argue that HRM practices have only an indirect effect on organisational performance (Appelbaum et al. 2000; Delery and Shaw 2001; Way and Johnson 2005). While there have been many studies that have acknowledged the existence of black box issue, Boselie et al. (2005) found 20 articles that have discussed the issue in detail. The black box issue has been investigated using two routes. The first route is through quantitative studies that have substantiated the need for identifying the role of intermediate variables in the HRM and performance linkages (Razouk 2011). Becker and Grehart (1996, 793) stated ‘unless and until researchers are able to elaborate models, including key intervening variabless of these intermediate variables are employees’ attitudes, behaviours and performance, measured on an organizational level (Sels et al. 2006). Fey et al. (2009) have worked on dataset of 241 firms consisting of subsidiaries of 241 MNEs operating in Russia, USA, and Finland. The findings demonstrate that motivation and ability are important mediating variables in the HRM– Multinational enterprise subsidiary performance relationship. Boon et al. (2011) show that some relationships between perceived HR practices and employee outcomes appear to be indirect, occurring via Person–Organisation and Person–Job ï ¬ t. Elorza, Aritzetab, and Ayestaran (2011) conducted multilevel analyses of a sample of 732 employees from 26 Spanish small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). The study supported a model in which employees commitment mediates between the actual system and unit-level absenteeism, which in turn has an effect on productivity. The second route used to investigate black box issues rely on in-depth qualitative research. Authors (Truss 2001; Purcell et al. 2003, Purcell and Hutchinson 2007) suggest that qualitative research is more appropriate to explore the black box since there could be an existence of a gap between intentions of HR managers and practice experienced by employees. In Indian research context, three articles (Agarwala 2003; Paul and Anantharaman 2003; Ketkar and Sett 2010) have discussed the black box problem concerning HRM practices and performance linkages. Agarwala (2003) demonstrates that certain combinations of Innovative Human Resource Practices (IHRPs) lead to specific employee attitudes, such as organizational commitment. The study attempts to provide an explanation for the HR-firm performance link. Paul and Anantharaman (2003) developed a HRM-performance linkage model with four intervening variables- competence, teamwork, organisational commitment and customer orientation between HRM practices and operating performance. The operating performance in turn has an impact on financial performance. Ketkar and Sett (2010) confirm the concept of HR value chain. The study proposes that HR systems have a direct impact on firm-level HR outcomes such as employee performance (also referred to as proximal outcomes). Also, the effects of HR systems on more distal operational and financial outcomes are mediated by HR outcomes. To summarise, studies have started investigating the black box issue in emerging and developing economies. In India, however, the studies are still scarce. There has been no study which has used the route of qualitative research to explore the black box. Future research should aim to continue ‘the search for holy grail’ by exploring the issue further. Conclusion Researchers (e.g., Bowen, Galang, and Pillai 2002; Zhu et al. 2008) highlight that strategic HRM research mainly has been limited to advanced market economies. India’s growing economic importance as an emerging market economy makes it an interesting research context. The growth of SHRM in India thus has wide ranging implications for researchers as well as practitioners. However, we would like to acknowledge some limitations inherent in the study which should be considered in evaluating its findings. First, the review is specific to a single country, India. Future research could seek to extend the scope to other emerging economies. We also suggest a comparative review of India with other emerging economies or Western economies offers an interesting case. Second, the number of reviewed studies is less which reflects that the field of SHRM in India is still growing. Third, the review has been limited to articles discussing the HRM and performance linkages. Thus, we may have failed to cover articles on other relevant issues in SHRM like role of HR in cross-border mergers and acquisitions (Budhwar et al. 2009), strategic integration and devolvement of HRM (e.g. Budhwar and Sparrow 1997). Although not the focus of this paper, these topics could be of academic interest and exploring them further may have important implications. Despite these limitations, t he article provides significant insights in the burgeoning field of SHRM in a promising world economy, India. The study suggests that while there has been an increasing volume of research on SHRM in India, the literature needs to more actively engage in conceptual and methodological debates. The review also highlights the areas of SHRM research that merit future attention in India. Furthermore, the study contributes to the extant literature by reviewing the state of empirical research in India on SHRM. References Agarwala, Tanuja. 2003. 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S., and P.   Sparrow. 1997. Evaluating Levels of Strategic Integration and Devolvement of Human Resource Management in India. The International Journal of Human Resource Management 8 (4):476-494. Budhwar, P. S. , and P.   Sparrow. 2002. Strategic HRM through the Cultural Looking Glass: Mapping Cognitions of British and Indian HRM Managers. Organization Studies 23 (4):599-638. Budhwar, Pawan S., and Arup Varma. 2010. Guest editors introduction: Emerging patterns of HRM in the new Indian economic environment. Human Resource Management 49 (3):345–351. Budhwar, Pawan S., Arup Varma, Neeru Malhotra, and Avinandan Mukherjee. 2009. Insights into the Indian call centre industry: can internal marketing help tackle high employee turnover? Journal of Services Marketing 23 (5):351-362. Budhwar, P. S., A. Varma, V. Singh, and R.   Dhar. 2006. HRM Systems of Indian Call Centres: An Exploratory Study. The International Journal of Human Resource Management 17 (5):881-897. Chand, Mohinder. 2010. The impact of HRM practices on service quality, customer satisfaction and performance in the Indian hotel industry. The International Journal of Human Resource Management 21 (4):551-566. Chand, Mohinder, and Anastasia A. Katou. 2007. The impact of HRM practices on organisational performance in the Indian hotel industry. Employee Relations 29 (6):576-594. Cooke, Fang Lee, and Debi S Saini. 2010. (How) does the HR strategy support an innovation oriented business strategy? An investigation of institutional context and organizational practices in Indian firms. Human Resource Management 49 (3):377-400. Datta, D. K, J. P. Guthrie, and Patrick M. Wright. 2005. Human resource management and labor productivity: does industry matter? Academy of Management journal 48 (1):135-145. Delaney, J. T. , and M. A.   Huselid. 1996. The impact of human resource management practices on perceptions of organizational performance. Academy of Management Journal 39 (4):949-969. Delery, J. E. . 1998. 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Lengnick-Hall, Leticia S. Andrade, and Brian Drake. 2009. Strategic human resource management: The evolution of the field. Human Resource Management Review 19 (2):64-85. MacCallum, R. C., M. W. Browne, and H. M.   Sugawara. 1996. Power analysis and determination of sample size for covariance structure modeling. Psychological Methods 1 (2):130-149. MacDuffie, J.P 1995. Human resource bundles and manufacturing performance: organisational logic and fiexible production systems in the world auto industry. Industrial and Labor Relations Review 48 (2):197-221. Maheshwari, Sunil, Ramesh Bhat, and Somen Saha. 2008. Commitment among state health officials and its implications for health sector reform: Lessons from Gujarat. Indian Journal of Medical Research 127:148-153. Marchington, M., and S.   Zagelmeyer. 2005. Foreword: linking HRM and performance a never-ending search? Human Resource Management Journal 15 (4):3-8. McNabb, R. , and K.   Whitfield. 1997. Unions, flexibility, team working and financial performance. Organization Studies 18 (5):821-838. Mingers, J. 2004. Future directions in management science modelling: critical realism and multimethodology. In Critical Realist Applications in Organization and Management Studies, edited by S. Ackroyd and S. Fleetwood. London Routledge. Mulla, Zubin R., and R. K. Premarajan. 2008. Strategic human resource management in Indian IT companies: Development and validation of a scale. VISION.The Journal of Business Perspective 12 (2):35-46. Paauwe, J., and P.   Boselie. 2005. HRM and performance: what next? Human Resource Management Journal 15 (4):68-83. Paul, A.K., and R.N. Anantharaman. 2003. Impact of people management practices on organizational performance: analysis of a causal model. The International Journal of Human Resource Management 14 (7):1246-1266. Paul, A.K., and R.N. Anantharaman. 2004. Influence of HRM practices on organizational commitment: A study among software professionals in India. Human Resource Development Quarterly 15 (1):77-88. Pauuwe, Jaap. 2009. HRM and Performance: Achievements, Methodological Issues and Prospects. Journal of Management Studies 46 (1):129-142. Purcell, John. 1999. Best practice and best fit: chimera or cul-de-sac? Human Resource Management Journal 9 (3):26-41. Purcell, John, and Sue Hutchinson. 2007. Front-line managers as agents in the HRM-performance causal chain: theory, analysis and evidence. Human Resource Management Journal 17 (1):3-20. Purcell, J. , Nick Kinnie, Sue Hutchinson, Bruce Rayton, and Juani Swart. 2003. Understanding the people and performance link: Unlocking the black box. London: CIPD. Ramsay, H. , D. Scholarios, and B. Harley. 2000. Employees and high-performance work systems: testing inside the black box. British Journal of Industrial Relations 38 (4):501-531. Rao, T. V. 1999. HRD audit: Evaluating the human resource function for business improvement. New Delhi: Response Books. Razouk, Abdelwahab Ait. 2011. High-performance work systems and performance of French small- and medium-sized enterprises: examining causal order. The International Journal of Human Resource Management 22 (2):311-330. SamGnanakkan, Samson. 2010. Mediating role of organizational commitment on HR practices and turnover intention among ICT professionals. Journal of Management Research 10 (1):39-61. Sels, Luc, Sophie De Winne, Johan Maes, Jeroen Delmotte, Dries Faems, and Anneleen Forrier. 2006. Unravelling the HRM-Performance Link: Value-Creating and Cost-Increasing Effects of Small Business HRM. Journal of Management Studies 43 (2):319-342. Shahnawaz, M.G., and Rakesh C. Juyal. 2006. Human resource management practices and organizational commitment in different organizations. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology 32 (3):171-178. Sharma, Tanuja. 2008. 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Lepak. 1996. Human resource management, manufacturing strategy and firm performance. Academy of Management Journal 39 (4):836-866. Zhu, Y, N Collins, M Webber, and J Benson. 2008. New Forms of Ownership and Human Resource Practices in Vietnam. Human Resource Management 47 (1):157-175.

Argument eassy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Argument eassy - Essay Example Some people believe that euthanasia is not wrong since it helps to ease the pain and suffering of the patient in case of terminal illnesses. In situations where patients are in critical conditions or life support machines with no signs of recovery, others prefer administering euthanasia (Peterson 23). Others believe that euthanasia saves money and resources. The amount of cash required for health care in many communities is high. In addition, the hospital beds and doctors in many hospitals are deficient. The supporters deem this as a massive misuse or waste of money and resources if they use funds to prolong the lives of already dying and suffering patients (Peterson 14). In my opinion, the only time that euthanasia should be administered is when there is consent of â€Å"voluntary euthanasia†. This is when the patient comes to a decision by themselves that they would wish to die rather than suffer in anguish and pain. This decision may come at the time, or possibly they may have written down a ‘living will’ giving permission to doctors to kill them if they ever are in a condition where they will never recover or regain consciousness. Marijuana has long been known as a remedy for many illnesses while physicians used it to arouse an appetite, reduce chronic agonizing pain, and treat migraines and even asthma. However, it has for so long been regarded as illegal (Burnham 1). In my opinion, I think legalizing medical marijuana is the right as long as it is strictly being used for medicinal purposes in order to save lives. Ever since childhood, everyone was being told not to do drug since they are dangerous to ones life. Doing drugs is obviously wrong. However, in severe medical condition where medical marijuana is needed for a cure or pain killer, it should be legalized since life is important. The main argument concerning marijuana comes from the legalization of the drug for medicinal and therapeutic purposes. This debate has two approaches.

Personal Point of View on Commanding Wife, Downfall Assignment

Personal Point of View on Commanding Wife, Downfall - Assignment Example As the author declares "every man wants a beautiful wife. I got one. Every man wants a brilliant and tough woman. I got one. Every man wants a woman that can stand up for herself. I got one. What else do I need? Twenty years later, she controls my thinking, she has modernized me, changed me from the cowboy man I used to be. I no longer wear my hats and boots like before. I am used to being in suits and matching ties. I am a different person. I am more responsible, and I have to consult her before making any decision. Do I fulfil the requirements of the men being masculine and domineering in the patriarchal society? What has become of me? Everyone keeps saying that I am being controlled like a small child? Is that so? [Pause] Has my life become well with my commanding wife or not? On a contrary thought, my commanding wife has helped me a lot. I was a wreck before, a drunkard, a useless bastard. I did very little to make my life better. All I did was sit†¦sit in the ranch and drink. Waste the whole day with friends in the motel†¦drinking and partying was the way of life. Look at me now, I have a job, I even built a house. I did not know I had so much potential. What was I waiting for? For my parents to push me around? No way†¦ they got tired of me a long time ago. See what my commanding wife, she took me as I am. I was a no one. I am now a living testimony of change. Why are people condemning her? I just do not understand how people think and behave. If I live a bachelor, they complain, if I marry, they say I am not man enough. I am tired. So tired [pause]. The good thing is that I love my wife. Whether commanding or not, she is my life, she is my support system. I admit that without her my life is useless. Actually, I do not know what I would d o if she left my world if she said she would live. I would surely die. My commanding wife, you are me, you are my life, and you are who that I dream of†¦ [Singing]. "

A Natural and Privatized life Essay Example for Free

A Natural and Privatized life Essay Haruki Murakami, a Japanese writer of short story, The Year of Spaghetti. The depiction of Murakami’s stories with point-of-view narratives provides certain distinctiveness to the characters, depending on how the dialogue is conveyed. The abstract things the narrator says and does provide the idea of human isolation with little feelings of fear. Although the story has no definitive plot, it grabs hold of conflicting emotions between fear and loneliness. The unnamed protagonist in The Year of Spaghetti, illustrates the meaning of loneliness through naturalization and privatization. According to the Article, Murakami Haruki and the Naturalization of Modernity, â€Å"Privatization is the process that makes naturalization possible.† (Cassegard 87) The first paragraph of Haruki’s story, The Year of Spaghetti, already shows how alone and private his life it. He says, â€Å"I cooked spaghetti to live, and lived to cook spaghetti.† (pg. 178) It already seems as if his mind is made up for the rest of his life. That he has found his life’s calling to cook spaghetti every day and every night. That is what is natural to him. Naturalization means, â€Å"that one has grown used to an environment that was once shocking.† (Cassegard 83) Nothing really phases him, however, he could not have reached naturalization without having privatization occur first. Privatization is: The process whereby individuals â€Å"become used† to solitude, or—to be more precise—their instinctual needs and fundamental impulses become channeled in such a way that their gratification is made less dependent on relations to other people. The term does not imply that human interaction decreases, but stands for the subjective process whereby such interactions become less important as sources of gratification for individuals. (Cassegard 87) This explains how the protagonist in this story can be conveyed as someone who is lonely, hurt, and avoiding the rest of the world, but could actually just be content with life. Privatization explains that the interactions with other people are not necessarily something he is bad at or is avoiding, but  just has less interest in it. The story then goes on to how the protagonist’s phone rang and how he could barely even recognize the fact that someone was calling him. This was due to the fact that he does not call nor get calls regularly. This is a shock to the protagonist because he was not expecting anyone to call or talk to him. As he answered the phone it was his friend’s ex girlfriend and by the sound of her voice he already knew she needed some kind of help. He then says to himself, â€Å"whatever trouble was brewing I knew I didn’t want to get involved.† (Murakami 180) Before even knowing what the girl’s problem was he already knew he did not want any part of it. This is part of his privatized life. According to Cassegard, â€Å"Their peace of mind is paid for by loneliness.† (pg. 87) Cassegard is trying to say that Murakami’s protagonist likes being alone and therefore, knows, getting involved in any type of way with this girl or anyone else for that matter will interfere with him being alone. He is so use to his everyday life of buying different types of spaghetti every week, cooking it in his, â€Å"huge aluminum cooking pot, big enough to bathe a German shepard in.† (Murakami 178), then eating it all by himself. Perhaps the German shepard is also a symbol of loneliness because this is all he did in 1971. He did it everyday and that is what he sees as normal. He kept his life privatized like this and that is why nothing is a shock to him, because it is natural to him. The protagonist’s tone in the story sounds content with subtle undertones of fear. It is like the spaghetti has some type of deeper meaning in accordance to his loneliness. When explaining how spaghetti is cooked a specific type of way he also mentions more than once how he must eat it alone. He even says he expects to be alone, and him subconsciously thinking people are at his door proves how lonely he really is. The protagonist says: Every time I sat down to a plate of spaghetti- especially on a rainy afternoon- I had the distinct feeling that somebody was about to knock on my door. The person who I imagined was about to visit me was different each time. Sometimes it was a stranger, sometimes someone I knew. Once, it was a girl with slim legs whom I’d dated in high school, and once it was myself, from a few years back, come to pay a visit. Another time, it was none other than William Holden,  with Jennifer Jones on his arm. (Murakami 179) Although he may be content and satisfied with being alone, you can still tell how lonely he really is by his actions. Whenever, he eats spaghetti alone he imagines people coming to visit. He especially imagines people up when it is a rainy day. The rain symbolizes the mood of sadness and loneliness, therefore, especially on rainy days he would doze off. The protagonist in the story shows his loneliness because he has to daydream of random people that are visiting him but do not actually come inside. According to Cassegard, â€Å"Few things are as striking in the protagonists of Murakami as their loneliness, even when they are with other people.† (p. 83) Cassegard is saying that Murakami’s protagonists are always perceived to be lonely even when interacting with others. For example, when the protagonist in The Year of Spaghetti is talking to the girl on the phone, he makes up a lie so that he can hang up with her because he does not want to speak or help her with her problem of needing to contact her ex boyfriend, the protagonist’s friend because he owes her a sum of money. He is not happy to have a phone call because he likes to be alone, so therefore, he lies about cooking spaghetti just to cut the conversation off. After he lies he thinks to himself, â€Å" I lied. I had no idea why I said that. But that lie was already a part of me- so much so that, at that moment at least, it didn’t feel like a lie at all. (Murakami 181) That line can make us idealize the fact that he has been cooking spaghetti for the purpose of a lie that has turned true. Him cooking spaghetti symbolizes his way of privatization. Eating spaghetti provides allusion to the idea of a tangled relationship that he is avoiding with anyone, especially the girl he was speaking on the phone to. His constant rejection to the world has lead him imagining a pot with water, on his stove, and an imaginary match. (Murakami) This collectively provides the constant isolated relationship between him and his world. Murakami is a different kind of Japanese writer. He adapted his writing style from the Western side. DiConsiglo says, â€Å"Growing up, he dreamed of America. He read American detective novels, and listened to American music  on the radio. Even the defining moment in his life was distinctly American. At age 29, while watching a baseball game, he suddenly realized he wanted to be a writer.† (pg. 1) Murakami then says, Writing in Japan for Japanese people is in a particular style, very stiff. If you are a Japanese novelist you have to write that way, Murakami has said. But I am different in my style. I guess Im seeking a new style for Japanese readership, and I think I have gained ground. Things are changing now. (DiConsiglio) Murakami was always teased for the way he writes. He was a disgrace to the older Japanese people because of the way he wrote. Japanese people would tease Americans and call them names like batakusai, which literally means, â€Å"stinking of butter.† (DiConsiglio 1) Murakami has been different from everyone else as he group up because of his interests and that is possibly why his characters in the stories he writes are so lonely, privatized, but also natural. His characters in the stories never seem to be shocked by anything because they accept everything as they are. They do not have any desire to figure out or question why certain things are the way they are. The characters just exist neither happy nor sad. And that is how the protagonist in Murakami’s story The Year of Spaghetti is like. His character shows not much emotion to anything else except his love for spaghetti and his few day dreams of random imaginary people. That is really lonely but does not seem to shock the protagonist nor phase him, because as said, t hat is what is natural to him. (DiConsiglio) In conclusion, the point of view narration has emphasized the point that gives his stories uniqueness and relatable aesthetic. It’s tone helps a reader to understand the author and protagonist’s ideas of privatization from the world that became natural to him. It is only then the symbolism of spaghetti provides a greater and deeper meaning to why the protagonist acts in the certain way that he does- a privatized and natural life. Works Cited Cassegard, Carl. Murakami Haruki And The Naturalization Of Modernity. International Journal Of Japanese Sociology 10.1 (2001): 80-92. Academic Search Premier. Web. 25 Sept. 2014. DiConsiglio, John. Haruki Murakami Stinks. Literary Cavalcade 51.4 (1999): 15. Academic Search Premier. Web. 25 Sept. 2014. Murakami, Haruki. The Year of Spaghetti. (2005): 178-83. Web.

An Analysis of Geoffrey Hill’s Little Apocalypse :: Little Apocalypse

An Analysis of Geoffrey Hill’s  Little Apocalypse   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Seamus Heaney’s â€Å"The Redress of Poetry† reveals the idea that â€Å"it is the imagination [of poetry] pressing back   against the pressure of reality (1).†Ã‚   The two opposing forces of imagination and reality are active in Geoffrey Hill’s   â€Å"Little Apocalypse.†Ã‚   The poem deals with the personal religious conflict of Friedrich Hoderlin (1770-1843), a German lyric poet.   Hill focuses on Hoderlin’s struggle with his strong belief in Greek mythology and then Contemporary Protestant theology. From this reality Hill utilizes Greek and Christian imagery.   Hill’s imagination complements Hoderlin’s reality and results in an artistic retelling and vivid depiction of the German poet’ strife.   Ã‚  Ã‚   The first stanza addresses Holderlin’s relationship with Christianity, specifically his mother’s desire for him to be a pastor. His mother was very up front with her wishes and sent him to â€Å"monastery schools† at Maulbronn and the theological seminary in the University of Tubingen (Witte 1).   In relation to â€Å"Apocaplypse† Hill writes that Holderlin is â€Å"close enough to survive the sun’s primitive renewing fury (33).†Ã‚   The sun represents Christianity and though its teachings as well as its unyielding methods of indoctrination (â€Å"primitive renewing fury†) surround him at school and home, he is â€Å"close enough† to his own religious beliefs rooted in Greek mythology (Witte 1).   The â€Å"scorched vistas† suggest that Holderlin’s perspective on religion had been modified or brought into question from his parochial education.   Hill implies that Holderlin considers his classmate s as â€Å"injured† most likely in a spiritual sense but continue to be brave. Despite the injured, Hill asserts â€Å"this man [Holderlin] stands sealed against their injury.†Ã‚   The image of Holderlin standing firm greatly contrasts with that of the injured and the use of â€Å"sealed† symbolizes that he held strong to his beliefs.   Ã‚  Ã‚   The second stanza shifts to images of Greek mythology.â€Å"Hermetic radiance of great suns kept in† has a double meaning. On one hand, his religious convictions are sealed air tight and on the other Hill imagines him as Hermes the ancient god messenger. As the ancient messenger God Hill insinuates that Holderlin himself was a messenger perhaps with a religious message but confused by two different religions. The last three lines refer to the rediscovery of Holderlin’s work that has established him as â€Å"one of the outstanding lyric poets in the German language† and placed him in the ranks of the â€Å"Greatest of German poets (Witte 2).

Gibbs Arita Assignment Essay

I have read and understand Strayer University’s Academic Integrity Policy. I promise to conduct myself with integrity in the submission of all academic work to the University and will not give or receive unauthorized assistance for the completion of assignments, research papers, examinations or other work. I understand that violations of the Academic Integrity Policy will lead to disciplinary action against me, up to and including suspension or expulsion from the University. I understand that all students play a role in preserving the academic integrity of the University and have an obligation to report violations of the Academic Integrity Policy committed by other student. In addition, I Arita Gibbs certify that I am the author of this document and any assistance I received in preparing this report fully acknowledged. I have also cited in APA format for all sources that I obtained ideas, data, and words. Sources are properly credited according to the APA guidelines. Arita Gibbs Due Week 9/ Date: 03/06/14 Promotional and Advertising Strategies Promotional and advertising strategies are important tools for businesses to stay on top. A company has to work hard every day to remain competitive. Most of their tactics include peeking the interest of consumers to buy a specific brand which is called a promotional strategy (Boone & Kurtz, 2013, p. 391). Promotional strategies also are put together to control the mix of daily activities, which the business benefits with market increase (Boone &Kurtz, 2013, p. 391). Advertising is another piece of the marketing process. It plays a major part in getting the word out regarding the product or service the business is selling (Lake, 2014). There are a few types of advertising such as, product advertising, cause advertising and institutional advertising (Boone & Kurtz, 2013, p. 398). Product advertising is design to involve ads with a message that differentiate the company’s merchandise or brand from competitors (Boone & Kurtz, 2013, p. 398). An example would be a credit card from any well-known company. Cause advertising deals with issues regarding ways to influence public and government opinion (Boone &Kurtz, 2013 p. 398). Companies who are designed for profit and those organizations who are charitably operated believe this tool is a win-win for everyone (Kokemuller, 2014). Important issues today being discussed are that children and adults should have every necessity in life, which should not prevent them from learning, living or being hungry (Boone & Kurtz, 2013, p. 398). Institutional advertising is a marketing tool which is based on the image of the company. This tool also promotes the designs, values and beliefs, as well as the good deeds of the organization (Boone & Kurtz, 2013, p. 398). Le Bonheur Children’s hospital is an excellent example. The company marketing strategy shows how a person can contribute a small donation an in turn can save a child’s life who is suffering from an illness. In assignment three, it states to compare and contrast the promotional strategies used by two different companies for a similar product. Next recommend two ways in which the company’s selected product could use marketing information to differentiate itself in the marketplace to gain an advantage over the company’s competitors. This paper will suggest two usages for consumer-oriented promotions that could assist a company in both the short and long-term, as well as analyzing the strategic manner in which the leading company in the product group has made a pricing decision by using one or more of the four pricing objectives. In closing two suggestive actions of other companies within the same product group will be given in order to help them differentiate themselves and gain a competitive advantage. The most effective advertising medium will also be discussed (Strayer University, 2014, p. 17). The two companies chosen are Nike and Adidas. Compare and Contrast the Promotional Strategies for Nike Inc. and Adidas Group Nike has become one of the largest marketers for athletic shoes (Nike, 2014). The company has global shares worth more than 30 percent (Nike, 2014.). Nike has sold their products through thousands of other retail stores as well as their products to countries both domestically and overseas (Nike, 2014). The company has outlet stores. Almost all of their products are made by independent contractors mainly located out of the country, with Nike involved in the market strategy and growth (Nike, 2014). Not counting the large range of core athletic shoes and clothing advertised under the leading brand, the company also sells shoes under other brands such as, Converse, Chuck Taylor, All Star and Jack Purcell through solely owned businesses (Nike, 2014). There is so much more to Nike. The company has relied on creativity in their designs of their products and large amounts of promotion to fuel their growth in the United States and other foreign Countries (Nike, 2014). Nike Inc. has a promotional strategy which thrives on an image, which has allowed the company to be one of the best (Nike, 2014). The company is known for their product icon â€Å"the swoosh†, which is different from other companies and their product slogan has been used in commercials for a very long time (Nike, 2014). Nike invests large amounts of money for commercials and product promotions (Nike, 2014). The company is motivated by customer agreements and sport teams. The company targets the college athletes to support the product and will also financially support team members that they will eventually endorse (Nike, 2014). Nike also uses their target techniques to include people who are well-known athletes and celebrity athletes (Nike, 2014). This strategy is a success because once the manager of a sports team decides on which type of shoe made  by Nike, he would like the student to have no choice other than to buy the shoe. The sports team can also buy the shoes in a large quantity and deliver it to the members of the team (Nike, 2014). Another marketing strategy of Nike is the creative design of a product objective or purpose meaning when a famous athlete promotes a certain brand of Nike shoe, the shoe will be associated with winning (Nike, 2014). The viewers have a mental effect from this type of correlation and the company builds a relationship with those consumers who are after the quality and utility of the items instead of the cost (Nike, 2014). With this idea, Nike is sure to reach a huge number of customers and clients who will purchase their products (Nike, 2014). Adidas has been in business over 80 years (Adidas, 2014). The company is known has the world of sports on each level, and they are also known for supplying the state-of-the art sports shoes, clothing and accessories (Adidas, 2014). Today, Adidas is leading the globe in the sporting industry (Adidas, 2014). The company’s strategy is modest; join our passion to create new and different products, constantly supporting our brands and products to increase our economic position and economic performance (Adidas, 2014). Adidas main location is in Germany, but the company has manufacturing centers and departments developing all around the world (Adidas, 2014). Adidas believes the company addresses many of the customer’s needs by exploiting marketing prospects from a number of angles. Their pledge to product innovation which keeps their brand different from the competitors provides a solid stage for upcoming growth (Adidas, 2014). There is no other brand with a well-known background and strong connection in sports than Adidas (Adidas, 2014). Adidas considers themselves has the best, and they are wherever the best will be such as, the Olympic Games, and anywhere else in the world where a game of sports will be played, observed, liked and celebrated (Adidas, 2014). The founder of Adidas is Adi Dassler (Adidas, 2014). His main objective for the company is not hard to understand, it is for all athletes to be at their best (Adidas, 2014). The key factor for all Adidas sporting products is to stay innovated, and the brand has five performance benefits, fast, strong, smart, cool, and more natural, which influences the important sporting events that focus on football, basketball, running, training, and outdoor (Adidas, 2014). The  goal for adidas is to market the individual who is active and lives for sports (Adidas, 2014). Nike uses the high profile athletes, and Adidas is about performance and lifestyle. Both Nike and Adidas use athletics as a tool for marketing in a way to attract the consumer to purchase their products. Recommended Ways to Market Information to Differentiate From the Competitors In this competitive market business promotion is the key to differentiate from the competitors (Boone & Kurtz, 2013, p. 395). One way is for the business to apply the rule of positioning. Product positioning is a strategy used to put a product perception in the mind of the person who is buying the product (Boone & Kurtz, 2013, p. 395). Positioning normally involves the creative difference associated with a product or service and the competition (Acevedo, 2014). Companies are successful when using this marketing tool because it helps gain market control, which raises revenue for the company (Acevedo, 2014). Adidas has a plan to attract the serious runner. The company is coming out with the shoe price a little over a $100.00 called the energy boost (Riper, 2014). The energy boost will be sold at all the Adidas Stores and the many department stores (Acevedo, 2014). The objective is to limit the advertising with no television involved. If this is a success the company believes it will have a retail rollback for a larger budget for advertising (Acevedo, 2014). The President of Adidas Patrick Nilsson believes if the company spends large amounts of money later then the company can have a wide range launch in retail when the time comes (Acevedo, 2014). Ultimately all of Adidas shoes, basketball, tennis, the whole nine yards will be linked to the boost technology (Acevedo, 2014). However, for now the company is pleased to know from a source in the apparel tracker states that the company has over 4% of the growth in the shoe market from two years ago (Acevedo, 2014). Nike uses their promotional strategy by using one of the company’s seven fundamental stages move (Nike, 2014). (Nike, 2014). Move is the stage which keeps the company different from the rest of their competitors (Nike, 2014). Nike will ship their products at any time, and by any occasion that the company needs in order to reach the thousands of  associates and the millions of customers over the world whether it is by plane, ship, small or large truck or train (Nike, 2014). Nike is serious about how they provide transportation no matter how difficult the obstacle may be (Nike, 2014). With this move Nike market leader enjoys over 50% market share (Acevedo, 2014). Adidas however does a little better with their overall athletic shoe. How Consumer-Orientated Promotions Can Help Nike and Adidas Short and Long-Term Consumer-Orientated Promotions are a part of the four marketing mixes, and it is also known as the pull-strategy (Moorty, 2014). Both parts are an important one for every organization (Moorty, 2014). The goal is to persuade the new customer or long-term customer to try out and purchase the products being marketed (Boone & Kurtz, 2013, p. 404). Also a marketer’s role is to motivate customers who shop frequently at the same business. Sample products, discount coupons are just a few of the promotions that can boost impulsive shoppers to buy which increases sales for the company (Boone & Kurtz, 2013, p. 404). The President and CEO of Nike, Mark Parker states the company’s short-term consumer-orientated advertisings is simple (Nike, 2014). The company will continue to produce amazing products, offer professional services and provide a continuation of excellent customer experiences. With these results will indeed show the power of our strategy and growth (Nike, 2014). Nike’s long-term consumer-orientated promotions are the vision that drives the sustainable growth (Nike, 2014). This balance is leveraged by an important advantage including the company’s reliability with the passionate connection to their customers; new and improve products with retail experience that lead the industry to be a stronger organization that also provides the opportunity to become a larger successful business (Nike, 2014). Nike has already set goals for growth to include the year 2015 (Kim, 2010). With a target set to at least $20 billion by that year the company has already outlined their revenue goals and initiatives and plans to reach this by using a customer-focus strategy (Kim, 2010). As time permits the more aggressive promotional strategic goals set by the business will be shared with the consumers, invested communities as well as the sports and apparel industry (Nike, 2014). One example is how the company has set their design to improve the company, by launching a new business a few years ago  called Nike Better World, an online stage to involve customers on how the business balanced individuals, economy and the world (Nike, 2014). Adidas short-term consumer-orientated promotions are to continue to rely on their customer loyalty (Adidas, 2013). As with any organization it is innovation, which makes the deciding factor who wins and who loses. Adidas has been successful using the brand equity method which has allowed them to maintain the slogan of being the fittest company on earth (Adidas, 2013). In order for the company to maintain their long-term status and sustain growth, Adidas will continue to create newer and improvable market brands (Adidas, 2013). Overall Adidas started back four years ago planning their strategy to increase the brand’s perception in the customers viewpoint which had an expectation to deliver over 80% of growth for the company until 2015 (Adidas, 2013). Some of the areas of improving consist of, the running and basketball areas, and combining the sports style with the Adidas NEO label (Adidas, 2013). However the company is keeping the original adidas because it has a long history with the energetic lifestyle customer (Adidas, 2013). The company will always be focused on the consumers wants, their level of fitness, their incentives and ambitions for doing activities in sports (Adidas, 2013). His or her individual way of living helps Adidas develop important products, services and experiences that construct a lifelong brand (Adidas, 2013). Pricing and Competitive Advantage In chapter 13 Promotions and Pricing Strategies there are four pricing objectives (Boone & Kurtz, 2013, p. 412). The four strategies are profitability, volume, prestige and meeting competition (Boone & Kurtz, 2013, p.412). Each objective has a responsibility to the person who is in business with making better pricing decision’s (Boone & Kurtz, 2013, p. 412). Organizations have their own style for using these objectives. Many businesses aim to increase the company’s revenue by setting higher prices (Boone & Kurtz, 2013, p. 412). Other companies may decrease their prices to bring in new clientele (Boone & Kurtz, 2013, p. 412). Nike is the leading company for their athletic shoes because of their higher price and leadership strategy (Nike, 2014). Businesses would define this as the prestige pricing strategy (Boone & Kurtz,2013, p. 413). The company has  been able to make this strategy successful because of their individuality in their brand and service (Nike, 2014). The name alone has been associated with many hero athletes for instance, Michael Jordan (Nike, 2014), This brilliant idea makes customers believe if Michael Jordan can buy a Nike shoe and become more successful than certainly another ordinary person can as well (Nike, 2014). This is why Nike customers do not mind paying a higher price because of the company’s image, value and customer service (Nike, 2014). Another pricing objective Nike uses is profitability. This is the most common factor used in a strategic plan for a business (Boone & Kurtz, 2013, p. 412). Nike has a plan to continue to bring in more revenue and remain profitability in the growth of the company, maintain the company’s flowing cash generation which will help to preserve a strong financial statement until the year 2015 (Kim, 2010). The company believes the return on invested capital is more than 20%, and growing shares inside the set target calendar year payout should be in the ballpark of more than 20% by the fourth quarter (kim, 2010). Both companies have been in business for a while, and their products are known to satisfy the customer’s needs. One suggestion that other shoe apparel companies can take in order to differentiate themselves and gain a competitive advantage is knowing how much the product is going to cost, quality, performance as well as the availability of the product, updated technology, good service, and strength and leadership (Hill, 2007). Second suggestion is to know the company’s relationship and making sure the organization can meet the need of the consumer in a way no one else will (Hill, 2007). Determine the Most Effective Advertised Medium Advertising Medium and cost are both key factors to the success of any organization (Boone & Kurtz, 2013, p. 399). This tool is how marketers are able to sell new and existing products and services to potential consumers (Boone &Kurtz, 2013, p. 399). There are many types of advertising, newspapers, direct mail, billboards, radio, internet, magazine, and television (Boone &Kurtz, 2013, p. 399). In this muti-media world, television is considered the largest ranking medium with over 40% of any other form of advertising (Boone & Kurtz, 2013, p. 399). Nike uses commercials and promotional products for their form of medium advertising  (Nike, 2014). Within the past six months, the company has grossed over 40 percent of their margin (Stock, 2013). Nike is focused solely on bringing new and innovate creations to the market (Stock, 2013). Nike believes they have a good thing going. As of now the attention is on their Flyknit shoe (Stock, 2013). This shoe has important types of fiber connected with fabric and leather and was marketed to catch the eye of the individuals who love to run, which came just in time for the Winter Olympics (Stock, 2013). Nike had to spending more for their advertising by trying to convince the customer that this $200 shoe was worth it (Stock, 2013). In order to do so, Nike had to bring out some famous athletes for instance; one of the athletes was LeBron James (Stock, 2013). By advertising LeBron in their ads the company was able to increase their profit margin, and acknowledged their game plan was a success not only by convincing customers to buy but using the ads as well (Stock, 2013). Nike was also successful with their global orders (Wahba, 2013). It was the largest so far of their sales in merchandise which increased over 12 percent since April (Wahba, 2013). The company’s total revenue was huge even up to the second quarter (Wahba, 2013). The company made over $6 billion which was a total revenue of more than 7 per cent (Wahba, 2013). Nike was able to sell more goods at a higher price than any other competitor (Wahba, 2013). The company profited in advertising and promotion by 13 percent with their help in marketing and product launching for the Winter Olympics (Wahba, 2013). Conclusion Promotional and advertising strategies of an organization are a determining factor to whether the company will succeed or fail. This competitive market is a vicious one, and in order to stay on top the most successful business must continue to develop new innovated strategies. Nike and Adidas have been in business a long time; Nike has been the leader and Adidas has been the Opponent (Wahba, 2013). Both companies have excellent strategies, and some of their strategies have a close comparison. Nike has been able to remain on top because of the company’s promotions, advertising and marketing genius. References Acevedo, L. (2014). Product Positioning Strategies: eHow Inc. Retrieved from eHow Inc Web site: http://www.ehow.com/way_5218154_product-positioning-strategies.html Adidas Corporation. (2014). Investors: Adidas Corporation. Retrieved from Adidas Corporation Web site: http://www.adidas-group.com/en/investors/strategy/global-brands-strategy/ Adidas Corporation. (2014). Our Group: Adidas Corporation. Retrieved from Adidas Corporation Web site: http://careers.adidas-group.com/our-group.aspx Boone, L. E., & Kurtz, D. L. (2013). Contemporary Business. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Hill, T. (2014). How Do You Differentiate Yourself From Your Competitors: Ezine Articles Corporation. Retrieved from Ezine Articles Corporation Web site: http://ezinearticles.com/?How-Do-You-Differentiate-Yourself-From-Your-Competitors?&id=705221 Kim, J. (2010, May 6). Nike Introduces 2015 Global Growth Strategy: Sneaker News Corporation. Retrieved from Sneaker News Corporation Web site: http://sneakernews.com/2010/05/06/nike-introduces-2015-global-growth-strategy/ Kokenuller, N. (2014). What Is Selective Product Advertising: Chron Corporation . Retrieved from Chron Corporation Web site: http://smallbusiness.chron.com/selective-product-advertising-17454.html Lake, L. (2014). Marketing vs. Advertising: What’s the Difference: About.com Corporation. Retrieved from About.com Corporation Web site: http://marketing.about.com/cs/advertising/a/marketvsad.htm Moorty, S. (2014). Define Promotional Sales: eHow Inc. Retrieved from eHow Inc Web site: http://www.ehow.com/about_5401613_define-promotional-sales.html Nike, Inc. (2014). History & Heritage : Nike Inc. Retrieved from Nike, Inc Web site: http://nikeinc.com/pages/history-heritage Stock, K. (2013, December 20). Nike Ramps Up Prices—and Ad Spending—for Olympics: BloombergBusinessweek L.P. Retrieved from BloombergBusinessweek L.P.Web site: http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-12-20/nike-ramps-up-prices-and-ad-spending-for-olympics Wahba, P. (2013, December 19). Nike profit rises and advance orders jump: Reuters Corp oration. Retrieved from Reuters Corporation Web site: http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/12/19/us-nike-results-idUSBRE9BI18R20131219

Is Marxism still relevant in the study of International Relations Free Essay Example, 2500 words

They also sum up the bilateral relations between pairs of them. To be more accurate, there is a propensity of actions to interact thus producing results that cannot be comprehended by theories. To explain the complexity of interactions between nations, one can take the case of two chemicals –taken individually they may be harmless; however, taking a mixture of both may bring harmful effects. Secondly, there have been cases of patients suffering from taking a combination of two or three medicines that would have been helpful if they were taken individually. It is possible to obtain different results depending on the structure of choices and the actors’ strategic moves. It is argued that, concerning the international politics and taking the example of pan-Arabism and pro-Palestinian sentiments, when Egypt was strong, its influence was enhanced by pan-Arabism and pro-Palestinian sentiments (Telhami 1990, p. 12). One cannot infer that such sentiments can have similar impact on another rivalry between two actors because of the difference in the interacting variables. In explaining the outcomes of world politics, theories have been prone to examine one actor’s behaviour while overlooking the other with which it is interacting. We will write a custom essay sample on Is Marxism still relevant in the study of International Relations or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now Teachers often make parallel errors through their failure to explore how the failure of students in tests may be attributed to the question they ask. Another complexity arises from actors’ reactions towards each other and the anticipations of the moves other interacting actors are likely to take, for example, in military and diplomatic surprises, one state may believe that the impediment to taking certain action is great to the extent that its adversary cannot undertake it. The resulting effect is that the state will not do much to avert or prepare for the action that may be taken by its adversary. One the other hand, Realist thinkers argue that most states constantly raise their defence capacity to enable them to defend themselves and advance their material interests necessary for survival. They assume that states have to do everything to maximize their likelihood for existence. Marxism transcends this thought. Marx and International Relations Marx did not write much literature about international relations; however, his ideas are relevant to the discipline of international relations to the extent that his ideas have found popularity among historians, politicians, academicians, and politics researchers. International relations are often accompanied by crises and conflicts because of capitalism and the inequalities arising from it.